Will the real gender pay gap please stand up? - The Conversation Cultural possessions decrease girls' math intentions more than they decrease boys' math intentions. Differences in pay between men and women capture differences along many possible dimensions, including worker education, experience and occupation. Marriage bars: Discrimination against married women workers, 1920s to 1950s. The inconsistency in the findings of parental socio-economic effects on math and STEM preferences and choices may be explained by the fact that SES is an indirect measure of household economic resources and also captures relevant non-economic household factors such as gender-role attitudes. Copyright 2023 Uunk. The gender gapwomen aspiring and choosing math and STEM fields of study less than menis larger the more affluent and genderequal societies are (Barinaga, 1994; Charles and Bradley, 2009; Charles, 2011, 2017; Sikora and Pokropek, 2012; Charles et al., 2014; but see McDaniel, 2016 and Richardson et al., 2020 regarding gender equality; Stoet and Geary, 2018; Breda et al., 2020). What does it tell us? 51, 234243. How is the gender pay gap changing over time? These gender-essential attitudes, which are not so much innate but a response to existing gender stereotypes and gender segregation, would be about similarity everywhere (cf. Rev. Available online here. Cross-country data on the gender pay gap is patchy, but the most complete source in terms of coverage is the United Nations International Labour Organization (ILO). doi: 10.1002/j.2161-0045.2003.tb00604.x, McDaniel, A. E. (2016). However, robustness analyses showed the same basic outcomes as observed for our main dependent variable (cf. Focusing on students' preferences to study math or language, analogous to the divide between STEM and non-STEM, may hide interesting economic resource/need effects. 111, 19101949. Although household wealth is higher in more affluent countries, if household wealth is not associated with a greater gender gap in math intentions, it cannot explain why in more affluent countries, the gender gap in these math intentions is generally higher. How the gender pay gap impacts the economy - Fast Company This allows us to tease out the extent to which different factors contribute to observed inequalities. Second, if we focus on groups of workers with roughly similar jobs, tenure and education, we also see a narrowing. Model 1 displays the Gender-Equality Paradox regarding math intentions: the higher (logged) the GDP, the greater the gender gap in math intentions at the disadvantage of girls. How Much Less Are Women Paid Than Men? - The Washington Post . doi: 10.1093/esr/jcv078, Mood, C. (2010). Our World in Data is free and accessible for everyone. Yet, these alternative explanations can neither account for GEP (cf. Here is a map showing scores on this index (higher scores denote more economic opportunities for women). For each specification, Blau and Kahn (2017) perform regression analyses on data from the PSID (the Michigan Panel Study of Income Dynamics), which includes information on labor-market experience and considers men and women ages 25-64 who were full-time, non-farm, wage and salary workers. Family socio-economic status, parental involvement and college major choicesgender, race/ethnicity, and nativity patterns. Eur. Table 2. Also, parental SES sometimes decreased the gender gap in STEM study preferences and choices (Codiroli McMaster, 2017; Van de Werfhorst, 2017), sometimes did not affect it (Charles, 2017), and sometimes increased the gender gap (Leppel et al., 2001; Ma, 2009). Given greater household wealth in economically more developed countries and the expected gendered effect of household wealth on math intentions (as in H1c), one may expect that household wealth can account for GEP (H3). Gender pay gap: headstrong women may get paid - World Economic Forum J. Sociol. In the chart we show that this correlation also holds within countries: Womens control is greater in wealthier households. Supplementary Table A4 for a country list). Economic inequality by gender - Our World in Data Certain behaviors in childhood are contributing to the widening gender pay gap. In particular, over the last couple of decades most high-income countries have seen sizeable reductions in the gender pay gap. GEP has theoretically been explained by greater economic opportunities for gender-essentialist self-expression in more advanced societies, yet this explanation lacks a proper test on the individual level. We expected children from the poorest households to stand out with a smaller gender gap in math intentions (H2a). This third point follows from the fact that the difference between the blue and red bars was much larger in 1980 than in 2010. Charles et al., 2014). Yet, even there, household wealth is not significantly associated with the gender gap in math intentions. doi: 10.4159/harvard.9780674065048, Keywords: STEM, math, gender, household wealth, economic development, Citation: Uunk W (2023) Does the gender-equality paradox hold on the micro level? doi: 10.1177/0956797619872762, Sikora, J., and Pokropek, A. Press. Our World In Data is a project of the Global Change Data Lab, a registered charity in England and Wales (Charity Number 1186433). Supplementary Table A7). This is evident from the fact that the blue bars are closer to 100% in 2010 than in 1980. "A young woman deemed to have been headstrong as a child will earn $2,431 a year less than a comparable man". (2009). However, we do not find such gendered patterns at the individual level. In addition to wages they also take into account income from investments and self-employment. Multilevel regression models allow one to take account of the nested data structure (here: students within countries), correctly estimating parameter estimates and standard errors (Snijders and Bosker, 1999).6 The models also allow the effects of individual-level factors to vary across contexts (here, random slopes of gender and, in some additional models, also of household wealth). (1998). And these are jobs with lower earnings per hour, even when the total number of hours worked is the same. In poorer contexts, on the other hand, women have to forego gender-essentialist attitudes out of economic need and more often opt for the financially more lucrative STEM pathways. Figures 2AD display that this finding, the insignificant effect of household wealth on the gender gap in math intentions, also shows separately for less affluent and affluent countries. We checked this to account of the PISA sampling procedure, where schools where sampled within countries and students within schools (OECD, 2014a). HDI includes per capita income, life expectancy, and national educational levels. The gender gap is even steeper for women . The gender pay gap is the difference between the average earnings for men and women, expressed as a percentage of men's average earnings. For example, there are relatively many women in the STEM field of biology. Pathways to science and engineering bachelor's degrees for men and women. Available online here. How did these reductions come about and why do substantial gaps remain? Next to testing the effect of household wealth on individual math intentions, I compare its effect across countries, using a multilevel design on more than 250,000 students in 60 countries from the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2012. Rev. This obviously circles back to our earlier point about social norms.20. The gender pay gap is harming women's health - The Conversation the gap here captures differences between men and women in the middle of the earnings distribution); and they cover only full-time employees and self-employed workers (i.e. We, therefore, estimated regressions pooled for girls and boys and interacted with all variables, individual-level and macro-level (GDP), by gender. GEP has theoretically been explained by greater economic opportunities in affluent societies for gendered self-realization, yet the literature lacks a test . Gender Pay Gap: How Much Less Are Women Paid Than Men? - Bloomberg In addition to percent differences, it is also common to express the gender pay gap as a simple ratio between wages. The Gender Wage Gap: Extent, Trends, and Explanations. Journal of Economic Literature, 55(3): 789-865. Gender is a focal variable. Only among the children from the poorest families may an economic need exist to prefer STEM pathways. Charles, 2017). I also control for household size to account for the greater number of household possessions in larger households. The gender pay gap across developed, emerging and developing countries stands at 20 percent, according to the latest estimate from the International Labour Organization (ILO). When citing this topic page, please also cite the underlying data sources. Table 3. The article is structured as follows: first, I discuss existing studies on household wealth and math and STEM aspirations and choices; second, I derive hypotheses from the economic need/opportunity explanation on household wealth and girls' and boys' math intentions; third, I outline the data, measures, and method employed; fourth, I present the findings regarding the tests of hypotheses; fifth, and finally, I draw conclusions and discuss findings. First-generation students, college majors and gendered pathways. (2017). The data produced by third parties and made available by Our World in Data is subject to the license terms from the original third-party authors. This is the definition used by the ILO. A final expectation pertains to the explanation of GEP regarding math intentions. Logistic regression: why we cannot do what we think we can do, and what we can do about it. Both discrimination and inequality are important. A later explanation also allowed these gender-essentialist attitudes to vary across contexts (Charles, 2017). is there a gender-equality paradox in science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM)? Closing the gap Governments, employers, and workers organizations recognize that closing gender pay gaps is more important than ever. Lundborg, P., Plug, E., & Rasmussen, A. W. (2017). And fourth, the green bars grew substantially in the 1980s, but stayed fairly constant thereafter. Age, grade level, and math test scores are control variables in the analyses. (1996), who look at discrimination in restaurants. The data that's emerged shows the gender pay gap across the OECD narrowed from 19% in 1996 to 12% in 2021, based on median earnings for women and men. Hence, while the unexplained residual gives us a first-order approximation of what is going on, we need much more detailed data and analysis in order to say something definitive about the role of discrimination in observed pay differences. (1970). What Is the Gender Pay Gap and How Do We Close It? - Global Citizen These findings largely align with Wright et al. Understanding the family gap in pay for women with children. It shows that women all over the world are underrepresented in high-profile jobs, which tend to be better paid. Pipeline persistence: examining the association of educational experiences with earned degrees in STEM among U.S. students. Does the gender wage gap depend on where you live? doi: 10.1086/499912, Marsh, H. W., Parker, P. D., Guo, J., Basarkod, G., Niepel, C., and Van Zanden, B. Another explanation sees GEP more critically. This is the definition used by the ILO. The fact that the motherhood penalty is indeed about motherhood and not parenthood, is supported by further evidence.

What Torah Portion Was Read On My Birthday, Philadelphia Homicides 2022, Houses For Rent In Jackson, Ms By Owner, Articles H